Print

“Hindization” of Indian Politics: A Path to Unity or Fragmentation?

36
Rubric: South Asia in Regional and World Politics
DOI: 10.20542/0131-2227-2026-70-7-71-86
EDN: BHSVYX
M. Reshchikova, ORCID 0000-0001-9927-5511, reshchikova.maria@gmail.com
Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), 76, Prosp. Vernadskogo, Moscow, 119454, Russian Federation.
PDF (RUS)

Received 06.03.2026. Revised 19.03.2026. Accepted 23.04.2026.

Abstract. The article provides a deep dive into India’s language policy since independence until today. The author assesses the importance of the language factor in Indian society, characterizes the country’s linguistic landscape, identifies the role of languages in various spheres of social life. The research emphasizes that the choice of a national language has historically been closely associated with India’s national identity and unity, which has provoked a struggle between English and regional/local Indian languages, including Hindi, and led to stigmatization of the former colonial language. At the same time, neither of the proposed candidates for the role of the national language has ever satisfied all the parties concerned, which in turn has created a conflict between Hindi and other Indian languages. These two lines of confrontation have been retained throughout the whole period of almost 80 years of India’s independent history and have never stopped haunting its national consciousness. The latest trends in the language policy related to the right-wing nationalist forces led by Bharatiya Janata Party and its prime minister Narendra Modi staying in power are a reflection of the “hindization” strategy aimed at securing the central role of Hindi, as well as other attributes of Hindu nationalist ideology, at the national level. “Hindization” affects politics, education, career, media, entertainment, and daily life, manifests in the changing names of laws, locations and historical places, becomes an instrument of political and economic pressure. Such attempts inevitably give rise to anti-Hindi opposition, making supporters of both English and regional/local Indian languages protest against Hindi imposition. Thus, the government’s efforts designed to unite the Indian nation result in divisions and irreconcilable contradictions within the population and growing political and social tensions. The author underlines the risks and limitations of the forcible introduction of the Hindi monopoly and calls into question the possibility and the necessity of uniting unique multinational, multilingual Indian society on the basis of one language.

Keywords: India, language policy, linguistic landscape, multilingualism, BJP, Narendra Modi, “hindization”, Hindi language, English language, language monopoly


REFERENCES

1. Ellis-Petersen H. ‘A threat to unity’: anger over push to make Hindi national language of India. The Guardian, 25.12.2022. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/25/threat-unity-anger-over-push-make-hindi-national-language-of-india (accessed 25.02.2026).

2. Agnihotri R.K. Constituent Assembly Debates on Language. Economic and Political Weekly, 2015, vol. 50, no. 8, pp. 47-56. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/24481425 (accessed 04.04.2026).

3. Ved M. The Indian Constituent Assembly Debates: An Interpretative Tool. International Journal of Legal Science and Innovation, 2022, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 238-250. Available at: https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLSI.111403

4. Nath S. Jawaharlal Nehru and the Contentious issue of National Language. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 2019, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 422-430. Available at: https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1904V11.pdf (accessed 04.04.2026).

5. Subramanian L. Language Policy in India: Its Role in Learning Outcomes and Communicative Performance. Integrated Journal for Research in Arts and Humanities, 2024, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 163-168. Available at: https://doi.org/10.55544/ijrah.4.3.31

6. Dasgupta J. Language Policy and National Development in India. Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia. Brown M., Ganguly Š., eds. The MIT Press, 2003, pp. 21-50. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/2988.003.0004

7. Gibu Sabu M. Language Planning and Policy in India Post NEP 2020. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2023, vol. 15 (3), pp. 45-60. Available at: https://selindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/languagepolicy-and-practice-in-india-post-nep-2020.pdf (accessed 04.04.2026).

8. Benedikter T. The Protection of Linguistic Rights in India: India’s Language Policy toward Linguistic Minorities. European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online, 2011, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 453-482. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1163/22116117-90001680

9. Delican D.D.M. The Language Policy of India. Istanbul Journal of Sociological Studies, 2011, no. 25, pp. 121-130. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335541761_THE_LANGUAGE_POLICY_OF_INDIA (accessed 05.04.2026).

10. Faha G.L., Pandey P. Language Policy in India. Global English-Oriented Research Journal, 2015, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 8-28.

11. Gupta G. The Debate on ‘One Nation, One Language’. International Journal of Language & Law, 2022, vol. 11, pp. 1-17. Available at: https://doi.org/10.14762/jll.2022.001

12. Dasgupta Sh., Ganguly O. One Nation, One Language: Examining (H)india’s No-English Policy in a Globalised World. The Public Sphere, 2023. 58 p. Available at: https://psj.lse.ac.uk/articles/128/files/644924794cbfc.pdf (accessed 05.04.2026).

13. Swenden W. Language Policy in India: An Unstable Equilibrium? 50 Shades of Federalism, 2019. Available at: http://50shadesoffederalism.com/diversity-management/language-policy-in-india-an-unstable-equilibrium/ (accessed 05.04.2026).

14. Sharma A., Sarangi A. Language Policy and Federalism in Independent India. Occasional Paper Series. Forum of Federations, 2022, no. 58. 28 p. Available at: https://www.forumfed.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/OPS-58-Language-Policy-India.pdf (accessed 05.04.2026).

15. Gusain L. The Effectiveness of Establishing Hindi as a National Language. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, 2012, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 43-50. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43134213 (accessed 05.04.2026).

16. Graziosi A. India and the Soviet Model: The Linguistic State Reorganization and the Problem of Hindi. Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 2017, vol. 35, no. 1/4, pp. 443-471. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44983553 (accessed 05.04.2026).

17. Jeyaraj J.S. Rethinking the Three-language Formula in Plurilingual India: Towards a Pragmatic Bilingual Model. Journal of Global Research in Education and Social Science, 2025, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 299-312. Available at: https://doi.org/10.56557/JOGRESS/2025/v19i39548

18. Kandharaja K., Vennela R. Enumerating hierarchies: census data and the invisible Architecture of India’s Three Language Policy. Current Issues in Language Planning, 2025, pp. 1-20. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2025.2580713

19. Chandras J. Multilingualism in India. Education About Asia, 2020, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 38-45.

20. Meganathan R. Language policy in education and the role of English in India: From library language to language of empowerment. Coleman H., ed. Dreams and Realities: Developing Countries and the English Language. London, UK, British Council, 2011. 32 p. Available at: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/Z413%20EDB%20Section04_0.pdf (accessed 20.04.2026).

21. Volkov Yu.A., Pashkovskaya N.D., Savel`eva M.N., Fomicheva D.A. The English Language in India: System of Education and National Identity. Education Management Review, 2023, vol. 13, no. 10-2, pp. 287-296. (In Russ.) Available at: https://doi.org/10.25726/r4950-4247-2328-g

22. Khokhlova L.V. Socio-Political Reasons for the Declining Role of the Native Language in India. Lomonosov Public Administration Journal. Series 21, 2015, no. 2, pp. 105-120. (In Russ.)

23. Mochalov A.N. India’s Territorial Structure in the Context of Ethnocultural Diversity. Journal of Foreign Legislation and Comparative Law, 2017, no. 5, pp. 62-68. (In Russ.) Available at: https://doi.org/10.12737/article_59bbac1ca98527.96839626

24. Borisova N.V. Ethnolinguistic Structure of Society as a Factor in Language Preferential Policy in India. South-Russian Journal of Social Sciences, 2017, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 48-67. (In Russ.)

25. Yudina N.V., Kamashev I.I. Language Policy of the Republic of India: Features and Possibilities of Integrating Instruments into the Russian Context. Modern Science: actual problems of theory and practice, series “Humanities”, 2025, no. 6-2, pp. 246-251. (In Russ.) Available at: https://elib.fa.ru/art2025/bv2794.pdf (accessed 05.04.2026).

26. Alpatov V.M. Language Policy in the Modern World: Monolingual and Bilingual Practices and the Problem of Language Assimilation. Comparative Politics, 2013, vol. 4, no. 2 (12), pp. 11-22. (In Russ.) Available at: https://www.sravpol.ru/jour/article/view/6 (accessed 13.07.2026).

27. Chernyshev V. Hindi in Modern India. Moscow, Vostochnaya literatura, 1998. 264 p. (In Russ.)

28. Chuprina M.V. Language Policy in the Republic of India. Knowledge. Understanding. Skill, 2012, no. 2, pp. 293-297. (In Russ.) Available at: https://zpu-journal.ru/zpu/contents/2012/2/Chuprina_Language-Policy-India/49_2012_2.pdf (accessed 05.04.2026).

29. Sokolova I.A., Mustafina D.N., Kalinina G.S., Ajdaeva G.F. Diachronic Analysis of the Development of the Linguistic Situation in India in the Postcolonial Period. Philology and Culture, 2018, no. 4 (54), pp. 81-87. (In Russ.)

30. Shetty K.A.V. One Nation, Many Tongues: India’s Unfinished Language Debate. The Wire, 18.10.2025. Available at: https://thewire.in/law/one-nation-many-tongues-indias-unfinished-language-debate (accessed 24.12.2025).

31. Nagarajan R. 52% of India’s Urban Youth Are Now Bilingual, 18% Speak Three Languages. The Times of India, 07.11.2018. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/52-of-indias-urban-youth-are-nowbilingual-18-speak-three-languages/articleshow/66530958.cms (accessed 24.12.2025).

32. Bhattacharya S. How Grouping of Languages Inflated Number of Hindi Speakers. Outlook India, 09.05.2022. Available at: https://www.outlookindia.com/national/how-grouping-of-languages-inflated-number-of-hindispeakers-news-195648 (accessed 24.12.2025).

33. Yasir M., Zaib A., Khan B. The Role of Hindi and Urdu as Sister Languages in the Formation of Civilization in the Subcontinent. Pakistan Languages and Humanities Review, 2021, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 111-127. Available at: https://plhr.org.pk/article/the-role-of-hindi-and-urdu-as-sister-languages-in-the-formation-of-civilization-in-thesubcontinent (accessed 24.12.2025).

34. Rukmini S. In India, who speaks in English, and where? Mint, 14.05.2019. Available at: https://www.livemint.com/news/india/in-india-who-speaks-in-english-and-where-1557814101428.html (accessed 24.12.2025).

35. Kumarasami L.S., Aarti S. Rajaji’s Language Policy in 1937 and 1965: A Case of Political Paradoxes. Review of Research Journal, 2022, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 1-7. Available at: https://oldror.lbp.world/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=13770 (accessed 24.12.2025).

36. Agnihotri R.K. Constituent Assembly Debates on Language. Economic and Political Weekly, 2014, vol. 50, no. 8, pp. 47-56. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282710053_Constituent_assembly_debates_on_language (accessed 24.12.2025).

37. Forrester D.B. The Madras Anti-Hindi Agitation, 1965: Political Protest and its Effects on Language Policy in India. Pacific Affairs, 1966, vol. 39, no. 1/2, pp. 19-36. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2755179

38. Ellison C. Hindi Hegemony in Modi’s India. Human Rights Research Center, 22.05.2022. Available at: https://www.humanrightsresearch.org/post/hindi-hegemony-in-modi-s-india (accessed 24.12.2025).

39. Iyer A. Devanagri numerals on new notes ‘design, not language’: Centre to Madras HC. Hindustan Times, 22.11.2016. Available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/devanagri-numerals-on-new-notes-design-notlanguage-centre-to-madras-hc/story-cOdY3k6cFO19T4B9PcbL9J.html (accessed 24.12.2025).

40. Ramakrishnan T. Explained. Hindi imposition and its discontents. The Hindu, 11.01.2023. Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/explained-hindi-imposition-and-its-discontents/article66023522.ece (accessed 24.12.2025).

41. Sharma Y. India’s language war: Why is Hindi sparking a north-south divide? Al Jazeera, 10.05.2025. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/4/10/indias-language-war-why-is-hindi-causing-a-north-south-divide (accessed 06.04.2026).

42. Mutha S. Hindi now a mandatory third language in Maharashtra for classes 1-5 as it rolls out NEP 2020. The Hindu, 18.05.2025. Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra/hindi-now-a-mandatory-thirdlanguage-in-maharashtra-for-classes-1-5-as-it-rolls-out-nep-2020/article69459520.ece (accessed 24.12.2025).

43. Bhattacharya S. Modi Government’s Language Policy Reignites Old Conflict in Southern India. The Diplomat, 25.02.2025. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/modi-governments-language-policy-reignites-old-conflict-in-southern-india/ (accessed 24.12.2025).

44. Dhillon A. Modi employs new tool in India’s war against the English language: Hindi medical degrees. The Guardian, 22.10.2022. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/oct/22/modi-employs-new-tool-in-indias-war-against-the-english-language-hindi-medical-degrees (accessed 24.12.2025).

45. Tirunallur W. No, India, Hindi Will Not Take Over Without a Fight. Global Voices, 27.08.2015. Available at: https://globalvoices.org/2015/08/27/no-india-hindi-will-not-take-over-without-a-fight/ (accessed 24.12.2025).

46. Sengupta I. Hindu Nationalism Has Found New Allies in Bollywood. New Lines Magazine, 14.08.2024. Available at: https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/hindu-nationalism-has-found-new-allies-in-bollywood/ (accessed 24.12.2025).

47. Adil A. India: Prime Minister Modi changes name of 3 islands. Anadolu Ajansi, 30.12.2018. Available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/india-prime-minister-modi-changes-name-of-3-islands/1352457 (accessed 24.12.2025).

48. Mahapartra D. ‘Fingers pointed at one community’: Supreme Court junks plea to rename places. The Times of India, 28.02.2023. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/fingers-pointed-at-1-community-sc-junksplea-to-rename-places/articleshow/98286644.cms (accessed 24.12.2025).

49. Ahmad R. Renaming India: Saffronisation of public spaces. Al Jazeera, 12.10.2018. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2018/10/12/renaming-india-saffronisation-of-public-spaces (accessed 24.12.2025).

50. Patwardhan K., Kumar M. Surgical practice and Ayurveda: A realistic analysis of the current debate. J Ayurveda Integr Med, 2021, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 195-197. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2020.12.008

51. Batyrov T. Modi Addressed the G20 Summit with a Sign Saying “Bharat” Instead of “India”. Forbes, 09.09.2023. (In Russ.) Available at: https://www.forbes.ru/society/496154-modi-vystupil-na-sammite-g20-s-tablickoj-bharat-vmesto-india (accessed 24.12.2025).

52. Vater J.J., Sen R. The Three Language Formula Revisited: ‘Hindi Imposition’ Stokes Protests. ISAS, no. 703, 30.09.2019. Available at: https://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/ISAS-Briefs-703_John-Vater-and-Ronojoy-Sen.pdf (accessed 24.12.2025).

53. Sharma S. Empowering Education through Mother Tongue: The Case for Vernacular Languages in India. The Times of India, 13.12.2024. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/education/news/empowering-education-throughmother-tongue-the-case-for-vernacular-languages-in-india/articleshow/116285877.cms (accessed 24.12.2025).

54. Niazi Sh. India or Bharat: What’s behind the name dispute? Anadolu, 06.09.2023. Available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/india-or-bharat-what-s-behind-the-name-dispute/2984787 (accessed 24.12.2025).


SOURCES

1. India is not a nation, nor a country. It is a subcontinent of nationalities. Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Tribune India, 19.05.2025. Available at: https://www.tribuneindia.com/thoughtfortheday/india-is-not-a-nation-nor-a-country-itis-a-subcontinent-of-nationalities-muhammad-ali-jinnah/ (accessed 25.02.2026).

2. Babasaheb Ambedkar: ‘The Grammar of Anarachy’, Speech to Constituent Assembly‑1949. Speakola, 29.11.1949. Available at: https://speakola.com/political/babasaheb-ambedkar-grammar-of-anarchy-1949 (accessed 25.02.2026).

3. The States Reorganisation Act, 1956. Available at: https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1680/1/a1956-37.pdf (accessed 01.02.2026).

4. The Constitution of India. Available at: https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s380537a945c7aaa788ccfcdf1b99b5d8f/uploads/2024/07/20240716890312078.pdf (accessed 01.02.2026).

5. Census of India 2011: Paper 1 of 2018. Language, India, States and Union Territories (Table C‑16). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Available at: https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42458/download/46089/C-16_25062018.pdf (accessed 01.02.2026).

6. The Report of the University Education Commission, December 1948 – August 1949. Vol. 1. Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1962. Available at: https://dn790002.ca.archive.org/0/items/dli.ernet.260240/260240-The%20Report%20Of%20The%20University%20Education%20Commission%20%28december%201948-august%201949%29%20Voli_text.pdf (accessed 01.02.2026).

7. EF English Proficiency Index by Country 2026. Available at: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/ef-english-proficiency-index-by-country (accessed 01.02.2026).

8. Population of Overseas Indians (on February 1st, 2026). Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. Available at: https://www.mea.gov.in/population-of-overseas-indians.htm (accessed 01.02.2026).

9. The Constitution of India, 1950. Available at: https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/19150/1/constitution_of_india.pdf (accessed 01.02.2026).

10. Official Languages Act, 1963. Available at: https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-languages-act-1963 (accessed 01.02.2026).

11. National Policy on Education, 1968. Available at: https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-reports/NPE-1968.pdf (accessed 01.02.2026).

12. Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita in Place of Indian Penal Code. Ministry of Home Affairs, 26.03.2025. Available at: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2115169 (accessed 01.02.2026).

13. Maharashtra makes Hindi ‘general’ third language in schools. The Hindu, 19.06.2025. Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra/maharashtra-makes-hindi-general-third-language-in-schools/article69707746.ece (accessed 01.02.2026).

14. UPSC and SSC Exams in regional languages. Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions, Government of India. Available at: https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=175263 (accessed 01.02.2026).

15. No plans to conduct SSC exams only in Hindi: Govt informs Rajya Sabha. Hindustan Times, 08.12.2022. Available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/no-plans-to-conduct-ssc-exams-only-in-hindi-govt-informs-rajyasabha-101670474129473.html (accessed 01.02.2026).

16. In higher education, it is time to prioritise Indian languages. Hindustan Times, 02.12.2020. Available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/in-higher-education-it-is-time-to-prioritise-indian-languages/story-G9qRgxvZHqrJsRcI2b1kWN.html (accessed 01.02.2026).

17. Kerala becomes Keralam, Gurgaon to Gurugram, Rajpath to Kartavya Path: A look at major place name changes under PM Modi’s govt. Business Today, 25.02.2026. Available at: https://www.businesstoday.in/india/story/keralabecomes-keralam-gurgaon-to-gurugram-rajpath-to-kartavya-path-a-look-at-major-place-name-changes-underpm-modis-govt-517854-2026-02-25 (accessed 04.04.2026).

18. Indian plan to combine modern and Ayurvedic medicine condemned as ‘catastrophic’ by doctors; proposal would include surgical operations. SCMP, 17.12.2020. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/health-wellness/article/3114152/indian-plan-combine-modern-and-ayurvedic-medicine (accessed 01.02.2026).

19. India or Bharat: What’s behind the dispute over the country’s name? Al Jazeera, 06.09.2023. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/6/india-or-bharat-whats-behind-the-dispute-over-the-countrys-name (accessed 01.02.2026).

20. INDIA adds ‘Jeetega Bharat’ as tagline for 2024 elections. The Times of India, 20.07.2023. Available at: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-adds-jeetega-bharat-as-tagline-for-2024-elections/articleshow/101967677.cms (accessed 01.02.2026).

21. India Population clock (live). Available at: https://countrymeters.info/en/India (accessed 01.02.2026).


For citation:
Reshchikova M. “Hindization” of Indian Politics: A Path to Unity or Fragmentation?. World Eñonomy and International Relations, 2026, vol. 70, no. 7, pp. 71–86. https://doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2026-70-7-71-86 EDN: BHSVYX

Contents World Eñonomy and International Relations. 2026, vol. 70, no. 7

Comments (0)

Show

No comments

Add comment







Indexed

 

 

 

 

Dear authors! Please note that in the VAK List of peer-reviewed scientific journals, in which the main scientific results of dissertations for the degree of candidate and doctor of sciences should be published for the “MEMO Journal” the following specialties are recorded:
economic sciences:
5.2.5. World Economy.
5.2.1. Economic Theory
5.2.3. Regional and Branch Economics
political sciences:
5.5.4. International Relations
5.5.1. History and Theory of Politics
5.5.2. Political Institutions, Processes, Technologies

 

Current Issue
2026, vol. 70, No. 8
Topical Themes of the Issue:
  • Global Tax Reform: Current State and Prospects
  • Approaches of D. Trump and J. Biden Administrations to Countering Foreign Influence in Academic Domain
  • Germany’s “Black-Red” Government Alliance Is at a Dead End
  • At Post-Soviet Space
Announcement

Dear authors of the journal!

Please note that the author's copies of the issues in which your texts are published are kept in the editorial office for no more than one year. After this period expires, the editorial office has the right to dispose of unclaimed copies at its own discretion.

Dear authors of the journal!

We would like to inform you that the materials proposed for publication in our journal must be submitted only through the form located on the journal website in the “Submit an article” section.

 

Submit an Article
Submit an Article
INVITATION FOR PUBLICATION
The Editorial Board invites authors to write analytical articles on the following topics:
  • changes in the processes of globalization in modern conditions
  • formation of the new world order
  • shifts in civilization at the stage of transition to a digital society

The editors are also interested in publishing synthesis articles / scientific reviews revealing the main trends in the development of certain regions of the world - Latin America, Africa, South Asia, etc.

Scientific and Practical Seminar of IMEMO, RIAC
and the MEMO Journal (2021–2023)